Democracy and Capitalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Democracy and Capitalism - Essay Example Great Britain had slowly emerged as a country that was dominated by classical liberalism as it evolved during the seventeenth and the eighteenth century. Capitalism was inadvertently further developed by two events of the late fifteenth century and the early years of the sixteenth century, namely the discovery of the New World and the Protestant Reformation. The Portuguese and Spanish colonisation and economic exploitation of their New World empires in Asia, Central America, and South America were responsible for greatly expanding global trading links. New World silver and gold alongside the Atlantic slave trade boosted economic development greatly. The wealth exported to Portugal and Spain prompted competition from the Dutch, the English, and the French for colonies and trade England and later Britain was the state most responsible for developing the global capitalist economy. Capitalism, liberalism, and the Royal Navy were a virtually unstoppable combination.1 When Britains economic and military power declined after the Second World War its position of the global promoter of capitalism and democracy was taken over by the United States. In 1945 the United States was the worlds only nuclear power as well as having the largest economy. During the Cold War period the United States certainly promoted capitalism and anti-communism even if it did always further democracy. During the Cold War era capitalism and democracy became even more closely linked together than before. Capitalism whether in its traditional liberal form, or the Keynesian version with its mixed economies dominated Western Europe, North America, Latin America, and Japan. The Americans were not averse to interfering in other countries if their democratic choices threatened capitalism, for example in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Guatemala, and Iran. Unlike Russia in

Restrictive health, safety and technical standards Essay Example for Free

Restrictive health, safety and technical standards Essay Technical Standards: Standards and standards-related technical regulations are pervasive features of global commerce, affecting an estimated 80 percent of world commodity trade. These technical specifications make up much of the vocabulary in the exacting language of industry, consumer protection, and government regulation. As such, foreign standards and methods used to assess conformity to standards can either facilitate efficient international trade and its resultant benefits, or they can impede access to export markets. Divergent standards peculiar to a nation or region, redundant testing and compliance procedures, unilateral and non-transparent standard setting exercises, and a confusing thicket of other standards-related problems are now recognized as major impediments to free trade. For example: Vietnams Ministry of Science and Technology publishes a list of imports and exports requiring mandatory quality inspection. Importers and exporters of the products on the list must subject their products to inspection and obtain a permit from the relevant government agencies (such as the Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Ministry of Industry, the Ministry of Fishery, and the Ministry of Science and Technology) at the time they go through customs. In the inspection, some products are subject to national standards, some are subject to regulations of the functional agencies, and some are subject to both. China is very concerned with the transparency of Vietnams mandatory quality inspection system. Language Barrier: Communication is the key to building successful business relationships. However, communication becomes complex when more than one language is involved. Interpreters and translators can play a critical role assisting exporters with the delivery of key information to prospective customers and clients. Interpreters and translators fulfill different roles in different cultures. For example, an interpreter in North America or Europe is expected to relay an unbiased account of the information to the audience. In Japan, however, an interpreter will translate the language and quite likely interpret gestures, context and meanings for those in attendance. Exporters should enlist the services of an experienced, fluent translator or interpreter who is also immersed in the culture of the target market. Working as a team, the exporter and the interpreter can review the text, presentation or other materials together to ensure that there will be no difficulties with background information, technical terms or potentially ambiguous messages. Non-tariff Barriers. Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) refer to the wide range of policy interventions other than border tariffs that affect trade of goods, services, and factors of production. Most taxonomies of NTBs include market-specific trade and domestic policies affecting trade in that market. Extended taxonomies include macro-economic policies affecting trade. NTBs have gained importance as tariff levels have been reduced worldwide. Common measures of NTBs include tariff-equivalents of the NTB policy or policies and count and frequency measures of NTBs. These NTB measures are subsequently used in various trade models, including gravity equations, to assess trade and/or welfare effects of the measured NTBs. Conclusion The world has a long history of international trade. In fact, trading among nations can be traced back to the earliest civilizations. Trading activities are directly related to an improved quality of life for the citizens of nations involved in international trade. It is safe to say that nearly every person on earth has benefited from international trading activities. This may be a good time to reinforce the idea that trade barriers are designed to protect some industries but, in fact they may hurt other industries or even consumers. Economists have found that sanctions dont often reach their political objectives and they come with high costs. A good example is the steel tariff imposed by the Bush administration, on foreign-made steel. President Bush imposed the tariffs, ranging from 8 percent to 30 percent, on some kinds of foreign steel in March 2002, in order to help the U. S. steel industry compete with foreign steel producers. Many U. S. manufacturing companies that use steel, including manufacturers of auto parts and appliances, say that the steel tariffs have raised costs for manufacturers and caused thousands of manufacturing losses. Also, people who buy cars or appliances may have to pay higher prices because of the steel tariffs. The U. S. International Trade Commission recently concluded that the tariffs have caused a $30 million net loss to the U. S. economy. In addition, the European Union is considering retaliatory tariffs against the U.S. TBR (Trade Barrier Regulation) is Europes way of removing obstacles to trade, ensuring that countries abide by the rules of international trade, and providing procedures for resolving international trade disputes. Through the European Commission, its procedures interface directly with WTO dispute resolution procedures, affecting all countries subject to WTO rules and agreements notably the United States and Japan and whose industries have been the subject of recent international decisions. Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations in the world, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are politically important domestically, such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture and textiles by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures. Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services. During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression leading to a collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression. The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the FTAA (Free Trade Area of the Americas) failed largely due to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years. Bibliography 1. Barriers to entry: Coping with protectionism. UK Investment. 18 April 2007 http://www. ukinvest. gov. uk/10415/en_GB/0. pdf 2. Boone, L. , and Kurtz, D. Contemporary Marketing. New York: Dryden Press. 2003 3. Brue, S. , and McConnell, C. Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2003 4. Churchill, G. , and Peter, P. Marketing: Creating Value for Customers. Austen Press. 2004 5. Czinkota, M. R. , and Ronkainen, I. A. International Marketing. New York: Dryden Press. 2005 6. Competition and Market Power. Econoclass – Sources for Economics Teachers. 18 April 2007 http://www.econoclass. com/imperfectcompetition. html 7. Deardorff, Alan V. , and Robert M. Stern. Measurement of Nontariff Barriers: Studies in International Economics. 2005 8. Debra Ann Skaradzinski. Testing chaotic dynamics via Lyapunov exponents. Journal of Applied Econometrics 20:7, (2003): 911. 9. Fisher, Ronald, and Pablo Serra. â€Å"Standards and Protection. † Journal of International Economics 52 (2004): 377-400. 10. Farese, L. , Kimbrell, G. , and Woloszyk, C. Marketing Essentials. Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. 2003 11. Henson, Spencer, and John S. Wilson, eds. The WTO and Technical Barriers toTrade, in the Critical Perspectives on the Global Trading System and the WTO series, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. 2005 12. Impact of Standards and Technical Regulations on Trade. Press Release from Commerce Ministry (2003). 18 April 2007 http://www. commerce. gov/opa/press/Secretary_Evans/2003_Releases/March/19_Standards. htm 13. Journal of Behavioral Finance, Vol. 4, No. 2, (2003): Pages 65-70 14. Kee, Hiau Looi, Alessandro Nicita, and Marcelo Olarreaga. Estimating Trade Restrictiveness Indices, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper # 3840.2006 15. Kotler, P. , and Armstrong, G. Marketing: An Introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 2004 16. â€Å"Methodologies, Classifications, Quantification and Development Impacts of Non-Tariff Barriers: Note by the UNCTAD Secretariat,† Document TD/B/COM. 1/EM. 27/2. (2004). 18 April 2007 http://www. unctad. org/TEMPLATES/meeting. asp? intItemID=3411lang=1m=10489info=not 17. Non-tariff Barriers Centre for Rural Agricultural Development (2003). 18 April 2007 www. econ. iastate. edu/research/webpapers/paper_12703. pdf 18. RSIE Working Papers. University of Michigan.(2005). 18 April 2007 http://www. fordschool. umich. edu/rsie/workingpapers/wp. html 19. The Impact of Regulations on Agricultural Trade. Working Paper, Centre d’Etudes Prospectives et d’Informations Internationales, Paris. (2003). 18 April 2007 www. econ. iastate. edu/research/webpapers/paper_12703. pdf 20. Trade, Environment and Development. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2005). 18 April 2007 www. unctad. org/trade_env/ 21. Vousden, Neil. The Economics of Trade Protection. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2005.

How Will Genetic Engineering Impact Our Lives? :: Expository Essays Research Papers

How will our lives change in the future? Are we as a society going to live longer because we have better medical treatments? The answer is most likely, yes, but will our genetic manipulation/sequencing take us to a new level. Instead of living to one hundred, will we be able to live to two hundred? More importantly, is this ethically correct to create a â€Å"fountain of youth† through genetic correction? An article I read recently helped me to draw some understanding. Thus far, researchers have had minimal success in using gene therapy to correct most genetic conditions and no researcher has used gene therapy to correct genetic impairments in a fetus (Parens). Although it is impossible to correct genetic flaws, we have discovered how to test for over 400 conditions, from those viewed as severe, such as Tay Sachs, to those that many might describe as relatively minor, such as polydactyly (a trait involving an extra little finger) (Parens). As it gets easier to test for these genetic disorders, so does the perception within both the medical and broader communities that prenatal testing is a logical extension of good prenatal care. On the other hand, as long as in-utero interventions remain relatively rare, and as long as the number or people seeking prenatal genetic information to prepare for the birth of a child with a disability remains small, prospective parents will use positive prenatal test results primarily as the basis of a decision to abort fetuses that carry mutations associated with disease or disability (Parens). â€Å"†¦There is a sense in which prenatal testing is simply a logical extension of the idea of good prenatal care† (Parens). Whether it is a logical extension or not, using prenatal tests to prevent the birth of babies with disabilities seems to be a good decision to many people (Parens). Even if the testing will not help bring a healthy baby to term this time, it gives prospective parents a chance to try and conceive again (Parens). â€Å"To others, however, prenatal testing looks rather different. If one thinks to appreciate why people identified with the disability rights movement might regard such testing as dangerous. For the members of this movement, including people with and without disabilities and both issue-focused and disability-focused groups, living with disabling traits need not be detrimental either to an individual's prospects of leading a worthwhile life, or to the families in which they grow up, or to society at large† (Parens). How Will Genetic Engineering Impact Our Lives? :: Expository Essays Research Papers How will our lives change in the future? Are we as a society going to live longer because we have better medical treatments? The answer is most likely, yes, but will our genetic manipulation/sequencing take us to a new level. Instead of living to one hundred, will we be able to live to two hundred? More importantly, is this ethically correct to create a â€Å"fountain of youth† through genetic correction? An article I read recently helped me to draw some understanding. Thus far, researchers have had minimal success in using gene therapy to correct most genetic conditions and no researcher has used gene therapy to correct genetic impairments in a fetus (Parens). Although it is impossible to correct genetic flaws, we have discovered how to test for over 400 conditions, from those viewed as severe, such as Tay Sachs, to those that many might describe as relatively minor, such as polydactyly (a trait involving an extra little finger) (Parens). As it gets easier to test for these genetic disorders, so does the perception within both the medical and broader communities that prenatal testing is a logical extension of good prenatal care. On the other hand, as long as in-utero interventions remain relatively rare, and as long as the number or people seeking prenatal genetic information to prepare for the birth of a child with a disability remains small, prospective parents will use positive prenatal test results primarily as the basis of a decision to abort fetuses that carry mutations associated with disease or disability (Parens). â€Å"†¦There is a sense in which prenatal testing is simply a logical extension of the idea of good prenatal care† (Parens). Whether it is a logical extension or not, using prenatal tests to prevent the birth of babies with disabilities seems to be a good decision to many people (Parens). Even if the testing will not help bring a healthy baby to term this time, it gives prospective parents a chance to try and conceive again (Parens). â€Å"To others, however, prenatal testing looks rather different. If one thinks to appreciate why people identified with the disability rights movement might regard such testing as dangerous. For the members of this movement, including people with and without disabilities and both issue-focused and disability-focused groups, living with disabling traits need not be detrimental either to an individual's prospects of leading a worthwhile life, or to the families in which they grow up, or to society at large† (Parens).

Genghis Khan

Later on in his life, Genesis Khan decided that, whilst assembling his army, he realized that separating everyone by their rank made no sense, so he separated them thou acknowledgement of their lineage, thus abolishing the distinction between black bone and white bone (37-38 & 52-53); Genesis Khan learned how to travel long distances over long periods of time with little food or water.This benefited them tremendously by letting them cross vast terrain that the enemy wouldn't expect them to cross, creating a surprise attack (86-87); Genesis Khan, after several raids, realizes that the rush to loot the germs of the defeated served as an impediment to more complete victory. Rather than chasing down the warriors of the raided camps, attackers nearly allowed them to flee and focused instead on immediately looting their camps. He distributed the goods along the same lines by which the hunting men of the forest traditionally distributed a kill at the end of a group hunt.This policy not only ensured him the support of the poorest people in the tribe, but it also inspired loyalty among his soldiers, who knew that even if they died, he would take care of their surviving families (50) 6. Mongolia and the surrounding area provided pathways and uncrossed terrain that allowed Genesis Khan to sneak up on his enemies and strike effectively. Also, he loud spare a few people so they can run to other empires and spread fear and panic across the steppes. (3-5) 7. One of the reasons that Timeline killed his older half-brother, Better, is because of how he treated Timeline.He would always steal any fish Timeline caught or killed, and would never share his earnings with anyone. Because of this, Timeline killed him in order to proclaim his dominance, to keep his dignity, and (possibly) to keep the family from starving. (24-25) 8. Timeline had to fight Jan-Kuaka, who was his and and his blood brother. Although Timeline had far less soldiers than Kumar, he used many different effective tactics against him, such as the Tumbleweed Formation, where Mongol warriors advanced toward the enemy in divided groups silently.This caused Genesis Khan's units to strike fast from a single direction, and flee quickly, leaving the enemy wounded but unable to retaliate before the attackers disappeared. Also, Timeline send a guard on a horse so skinny with a saddle so primitive that the captors sent the horse and saddle from camp to camp in mockery to how pathetic the Mongols had become. In another trick, since he had far fewer soldiers than the Kumar, Timeline ordered each man o set 5 campfires every night on the hills where his army camped, in order to make them seem like a much larger army.The Mongols were gaining the advantage, but Timeline did not race to victory. The night before the decisive battle, he told his men to sleep soundly. This is due to the fear inside the Anima, who began to flee in the night. However, Genesis knew that their only escape route was down the steep b ackside of a mountain, and, unable to see, the fleeing men and their horses fell into the gorge. The next morning, Genesis Khan easily defeated the remaining threats, causing Kumar to disappear into the forest. Timeline executed Kumar;s betrayers on the principle that betrayal merits the harshest punishment.The Secret History states that Timeline offered renewal of their brotherhood, but Kumar insisted that just as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord. He asked to be executed by dying a noble death without the spilling of blood. His request was granted by having his back broken by Tennis's soldiers. It is said that Timeline buried Kumar in the golden belt that he had given to Kumar when they formed their bond of brotherhood. (61-64) 9. The Mongols were effective in expanding their empire, and used any techniques to do so.These techniques were acquired by Genesis Khan's observations of his enemies' attempts to use one or more techniques to attack the Mongols. After he conquered empire after empire, he would spare one or more people that helped create/develop the machinery/ maneuvers/techniques and would use them against other empires, keeping one or more of the engineers with him during invasions for quick assembling for a swift encounter. Genesis also snuck up on other enemies that, out of pure fear and loyalty, they agreed to side with Genesis and bring more goods to the people of Mongolia, thus benefiting the ranking of Mongols.This instilled fear into Genesis Khan's enemies, and spread word of his terror across the steppes. This increased his dominance and his reign, and whenever people fled to other places to warn them of the unstoppable army of Genesis Khan, it only fueled his hunger for victory with the fear of every empire that would soon be conquered, stolen, and destroyed by the tenacious hands of Genesis Khan. (81-84) 10. Mongol conquests resulted in some of the most destructive wars in human history.In Iran, the Mongol invasion resulted in extermination, disease, and destruction of irrigation yester resulting in mass emigration, famine, and drastic population decline. The Mongols differed drastically from their opponents in the sense of warfare. The Mongols used a variety of attacks, techniques and maneuvers to successfully attack their enemies. The Mongols were viewed as ruthless, brutal and bloodthirsty. In a way, they are ruthless, but their tactics for fighting were far more successful than their â€Å"civilized† opponents, which gave them an enormous advantage, and thus making domination imminent.The spread of word about the Mongols helped others know about the coming of he Mongol army, and would even make many people flee towards them in submission. (144-147) 1 . The Mongols' encounters with religion had a large effect on their lives. Religious tolerance was evident in their society, so there were many people of different religions. Christianity was viewed as a praise d, popular religion by some, but also as a group of hatred by others, due to the killing of Jews by Christians. The Mongols had a system of religious freedom; they required that the needs of the empire be served before there own, however.Christianity was spread effectively around multiple areas, but the Mongols, for the most art, kept their religion and beliefs alive, not letting anything else alter that. (219 and pages from Chi. 9-10) 2. In the book, the Christian Crusaders, when they took cities such as Antioch in 1 098 and Jerusalem in 1 099, slaughtered the Jews and Muslims without regard for age or gender, but merely because of their religion. (116) 3. Genesis Khan used brute force to conquer his enemies. He would destroy empires and steal riches afterwards. Chablis Khan, however, was no Genesis Khan.Chablis, even without the military skills of his grandfather, had clearly outsmarted everyone in his family. He possessed a keen strategic talent and he ability to have, and implem ent, good ideas; he applied these skills to the management of his territory, and its expansion toward the south. In the end, he proved able to achieve though public politics what his grandfather had not been able to achieve through brute force: the conquest and unification of all Chine, the most populous country on earth. (195) 4. Traditionally, merchants were accorded a relatively low social status in China.The Mongols, however, had a more favorable attitude toward merchants and commerce -? their nomadic way of life, which is much reliant on trade with sedentary peoples, ad caused them to recognize the importance of trade from the very earliest times. Thus, the Mongols worked to improve the social status of merchants and traders throughout their domains. The Mongols always favored trade. Their nomadic way of life caused them to recognize the importance of trade from the very earliest times and, unlike the Chinese, they had a positive attitude toward merchants and commerce.Support f or trade characterized not only Mongol policy in China but their policy throughout their domains. The Mongols even tried to introduce paper money -? though this would come merely a failed experiment. Nonetheless, the attempt indicates the desire of the Mongols to provide additional assistance to traders. (250) 5. In the Mongolia Empire, there were common principles/innovations that they created during their rule. Some of these included paper money, international law, diplomatic immunity, primacy of the state over the church, and freedom of religion.These innovations have all led to our advantages in today's contemporary lifestyle: Paper money is used all around the world, making it one of the most common forms of currency used worldwide; international away is used to keep order and peace for everyone; diplomatic immunity is used where there are rulers/leaders, making them ‘immune' to lawsuit/ prosecution under that host country's laws; freedom of religion, which is greatly use d today, helps prevent religious prosecution in our society, and lets people freely practice and be proud of their beliefs. (236) 6.As the people infected with the bubonic plague died, they infected those around them by violent coughing, sneezing and gasping. When the plague broke out in Mongolia and China, the Mongols brought the disease north with them. The disease was carried by fleas, but, even though they don't normally come in contact with humans, they traveled in the food crates of the Mongols. Also, China functioned as the manufacturing center of the Mongol World System, and as the goods poured out of China, the disease followed, seemingly spreading in all directions at once.By 1338 the plague crossed from China over the Titan Shaman Mountains. The same Mongol roads and caravans that knitted together the Eurasian world of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries moved more than mere silk and spices. The roads set up by the Mongols for merchants also served as the accidental t ransfer point for the fleas and, thereby, for the disease itself. With all the luxurious fabrics and more, the caravans brought the fleas that spread the plague from one camp to another, one village to another, one city to another, and one continent to another.In the sixty years from 1340 until 1400, the population of Asia declined from 238 million to 201 million inhabitants, and Europe from 75 million to 52 million. (242-245) 7. Gender the widespread influences from the paper and printing, gunpowder and firearms, and the spread of the navigational compass and other maritime equipment, Europeans experienced a Renaissance, literally a rebirth, but it was not the ancient world of Greece and Rome being reborn: It was the Mongol Empire, picked up, transferred, and adapted by the Europeans to their own needs and culture.The paintings shared a common source in the work of Ghetto did Bonded and his disciples. Although the frescoes of the church depicted events from the life of Christ, more than a thousand years before the Mongol Empire, only shortly before Mongol contact, the artists depicted many of their subjects as Mongols or used Mongol dress and cloth for them. The artists placed Mongols in a variety of Christian paintings with their distinctive clothing, headgear, and bows. Genghis Khan Later on in his life, Genesis Khan decided that, whilst assembling his army, he realized that separating everyone by their rank made no sense, so he separated them thou acknowledgement of their lineage, thus abolishing the distinction between black bone and white bone (37-38 & 52-53); Genesis Khan learned how to travel long distances over long periods of time with little food or water.This benefited them tremendously by letting them cross vast terrain that the enemy wouldn't expect them to cross, creating a surprise attack (86-87); Genesis Khan, after several raids, realizes that the rush to loot the germs of the defeated served as an impediment to more complete victory. Rather than chasing down the warriors of the raided camps, attackers nearly allowed them to flee and focused instead on immediately looting their camps. He distributed the goods along the same lines by which the hunting men of the forest traditionally distributed a kill at the end of a group hunt.This policy not only ensured him the support of the poorest people in the tribe, but it also inspired loyalty among his soldiers, who knew that even if they died, he would take care of their surviving families (50) 6. Mongolia and the surrounding area provided pathways and uncrossed terrain that allowed Genesis Khan to sneak up on his enemies and strike effectively. Also, he loud spare a few people so they can run to other empires and spread fear and panic across the steppes. (3-5) 7. One of the reasons that Timeline killed his older half-brother, Better, is because of how he treated Timeline.He would always steal any fish Timeline caught or killed, and would never share his earnings with anyone. Because of this, Timeline killed him in order to proclaim his dominance, to keep his dignity, and (possibly) to keep the family from starving. (24-25) 8. Timeline had to fight Jan-Kuaka, who was his and and his blood brother. Although Timeline had far less soldiers than Kumar, he used many different effective tactics against him, such as the Tumbleweed Formation, where Mongol warriors advanced toward the enemy in divided groups silently.This caused Genesis Khan's units to strike fast from a single direction, and flee quickly, leaving the enemy wounded but unable to retaliate before the attackers disappeared. Also, Timeline send a guard on a horse so skinny with a saddle so primitive that the captors sent the horse and saddle from camp to camp in mockery to how pathetic the Mongols had become. In another trick, since he had far fewer soldiers than the Kumar, Timeline ordered each man o set 5 campfires every night on the hills where his army camped, in order to make them seem like a much larger army.The Mongols were gaining the advantage, but Timeline did not race to victory. The night before the decisive battle, he told his men to sleep soundly. This is due to the fear inside the Anima, who began to flee in the night. However, Genesis knew that their only escape route was down the steep b ackside of a mountain, and, unable to see, the fleeing men and their horses fell into the gorge. The next morning, Genesis Khan easily defeated the remaining threats, causing Kumar to disappear into the forest. Timeline executed Kumar;s betrayers on the principle that betrayal merits the harshest punishment.The Secret History states that Timeline offered renewal of their brotherhood, but Kumar insisted that just as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord. He asked to be executed by dying a noble death without the spilling of blood. His request was granted by having his back broken by Tennis's soldiers. It is said that Timeline buried Kumar in the golden belt that he had given to Kumar when they formed their bond of brotherhood. (61-64) 9. The Mongols were effective in expanding their empire, and used any techniques to do so.These techniques were acquired by Genesis Khan's observations of his enemies' attempts to use one or more techniques to attack the Mongols. After he conquered empire after empire, he would spare one or more people that helped create/develop the machinery/ maneuvers/techniques and would use them against other empires, keeping one or more of the engineers with him during invasions for quick assembling for a swift encounter. Genesis also snuck up on other enemies that, out of pure fear and loyalty, they agreed to side with Genesis and bring more goods to the people of Mongolia, thus benefiting the ranking of Mongols.This instilled fear into Genesis Khan's enemies, and spread word of his terror across the steppes. This increased his dominance and his reign, and whenever people fled to other places to warn them of the unstoppable army of Genesis Khan, it only fueled his hunger for victory with the fear of every empire that would soon be conquered, stolen, and destroyed by the tenacious hands of Genesis Khan. (81-84) 10. Mongol conquests resulted in some of the most destructive wars in human history.In Iran, the Mongol invasion resulted in extermination, disease, and destruction of irrigation yester resulting in mass emigration, famine, and drastic population decline. The Mongols differed drastically from their opponents in the sense of warfare. The Mongols used a variety of attacks, techniques and maneuvers to successfully attack their enemies. The Mongols were viewed as ruthless, brutal and bloodthirsty. In a way, they are ruthless, but their tactics for fighting were far more successful than their â€Å"civilized† opponents, which gave them an enormous advantage, and thus making domination imminent.The spread of word about the Mongols helped others know about the coming of he Mongol army, and would even make many people flee towards them in submission. (144-147) 1 . The Mongols' encounters with religion had a large effect on their lives. Religious tolerance was evident in their society, so there were many people of different religions. Christianity was viewed as a praise d, popular religion by some, but also as a group of hatred by others, due to the killing of Jews by Christians. The Mongols had a system of religious freedom; they required that the needs of the empire be served before there own, however.Christianity was spread effectively around multiple areas, but the Mongols, for the most art, kept their religion and beliefs alive, not letting anything else alter that. (219 and pages from Chi. 9-10) 2. In the book, the Christian Crusaders, when they took cities such as Antioch in 1 098 and Jerusalem in 1 099, slaughtered the Jews and Muslims without regard for age or gender, but merely because of their religion. (116) 3. Genesis Khan used brute force to conquer his enemies. He would destroy empires and steal riches afterwards. Chablis Khan, however, was no Genesis Khan.Chablis, even without the military skills of his grandfather, had clearly outsmarted everyone in his family. He possessed a keen strategic talent and he ability to have, and implem ent, good ideas; he applied these skills to the management of his territory, and its expansion toward the south. In the end, he proved able to achieve though public politics what his grandfather had not been able to achieve through brute force: the conquest and unification of all Chine, the most populous country on earth. (195) 4. Traditionally, merchants were accorded a relatively low social status in China.The Mongols, however, had a more favorable attitude toward merchants and commerce -? their nomadic way of life, which is much reliant on trade with sedentary peoples, ad caused them to recognize the importance of trade from the very earliest times. Thus, the Mongols worked to improve the social status of merchants and traders throughout their domains. The Mongols always favored trade. Their nomadic way of life caused them to recognize the importance of trade from the very earliest times and, unlike the Chinese, they had a positive attitude toward merchants and commerce.Support f or trade characterized not only Mongol policy in China but their policy throughout their domains. The Mongols even tried to introduce paper money -? though this would come merely a failed experiment. Nonetheless, the attempt indicates the desire of the Mongols to provide additional assistance to traders. (250) 5. In the Mongolia Empire, there were common principles/innovations that they created during their rule. Some of these included paper money, international law, diplomatic immunity, primacy of the state over the church, and freedom of religion.These innovations have all led to our advantages in today's contemporary lifestyle: Paper money is used all around the world, making it one of the most common forms of currency used worldwide; international away is used to keep order and peace for everyone; diplomatic immunity is used where there are rulers/leaders, making them ‘immune' to lawsuit/ prosecution under that host country's laws; freedom of religion, which is greatly use d today, helps prevent religious prosecution in our society, and lets people freely practice and be proud of their beliefs. (236) 6.As the people infected with the bubonic plague died, they infected those around them by violent coughing, sneezing and gasping. When the plague broke out in Mongolia and China, the Mongols brought the disease north with them. The disease was carried by fleas, but, even though they don't normally come in contact with humans, they traveled in the food crates of the Mongols. Also, China functioned as the manufacturing center of the Mongol World System, and as the goods poured out of China, the disease followed, seemingly spreading in all directions at once.By 1338 the plague crossed from China over the Titan Shaman Mountains. The same Mongol roads and caravans that knitted together the Eurasian world of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries moved more than mere silk and spices. The roads set up by the Mongols for merchants also served as the accidental t ransfer point for the fleas and, thereby, for the disease itself. With all the luxurious fabrics and more, the caravans brought the fleas that spread the plague from one camp to another, one village to another, one city to another, and one continent to another.In the sixty years from 1340 until 1400, the population of Asia declined from 238 million to 201 million inhabitants, and Europe from 75 million to 52 million. (242-245) 7. Gender the widespread influences from the paper and printing, gunpowder and firearms, and the spread of the navigational compass and other maritime equipment, Europeans experienced a Renaissance, literally a rebirth, but it was not the ancient world of Greece and Rome being reborn: It was the Mongol Empire, picked up, transferred, and adapted by the Europeans to their own needs and culture.The paintings shared a common source in the work of Ghetto did Bonded and his disciples. Although the frescoes of the church depicted events from the life of Christ, more than a thousand years before the Mongol Empire, only shortly before Mongol contact, the artists depicted many of their subjects as Mongols or used Mongol dress and cloth for them. The artists placed Mongols in a variety of Christian paintings with their distinctive clothing, headgear, and bows.

Nike †Social and Ethical Issues Essay

Nike has become one of those global companies targeted by a broad range of campaigning pressure groups and journalists as a symbolic representation of the business in society. In Nike’s case, the issues are those of human rights and conditions for workers in factories in developing countries. In the face of constant accusations, Nike has developed a considered response but the criticism of Nike still continues. Nike produces footwear, clothing, equipment and accessory products for the sports and athletic market. It is the largest seller of such garments in the world. It sells to approximately 19,000 retail accounts in the US, and then in approximately 140 countries around the world. Just about all of its products are manufactured by independent contractors with footwear products in particular being manufactured in developing countries. The company manufactures in China, Taiwan, Korea, and Mexico as well as in the US and in Italy. The Global Alliance report on the factories in Indonesia gave the following workforce profile: 58% of them are young adults between 20 and 24 years old, and 83% are women. Few have work-related skills when they arrive at the factory. Nike has around 700 contract factories, within which around 20% of the workers are creating Nike products. Conditions for these workers have been a source of heated debate, with allegations made by campaigns of poor conditions, with harassment and abuse. Nike has sought to respond to these allegations by putting into place a code of conduct for all of its suppliers, and working with the Global Alliance to review around 21 of these factories, and to pick up and respond to issues. The main concerns expressed by workers relate to their physical working environment. A further report has been produced relating to a site in Mexico, which has experienced serious problems leading to labour disputes. In both cases, Nike responded to the audit reports with a detailed remediation plan. Naomi Klein, in her widely read book â€Å"No Logo† deals quite extensively with Nike, accusing them of abandoning countries as they developed better pay and employment rights in favour of countries like China, where these are less of a cost. She points to a photo published in 1996 showing children in Pakistan stitching Nike footballs as an example of the use of child labour. Other critics have suggested that Nike should publicise all of its factories, and allow independent inspection to verify conditions there. Any auditing carried out by Nike should be made public. Nike accuses Naomi Klein of peddling inaccurate and old information. They point out that they have not abandoned countries as she claims, and remain in Taiwan and Korea despite the higher wages and labour rights. They admit that the 1996 photo documented what they describe as a â€Å"large mistake† when they began to order soccer balls for the first time from a supplier in Pakistan. They now operate stitching centres where the non-use of child labour can be verified. The Global Alliance was quite complimentary. It said â€Å"Upon due consideration, members of the Operating Council unanimously expressed their judgement that upon learning of the alleged violations surfaced through the Global Alliance assessment process, that Nike had acted in good faith, and developed a serious and reasonable remediation plan.† Bibliography The Economist (1999), US Edition, Sweatshop wars, 14th February, pp. 62Wheelen, T. L. & Hunger, J. D., (1995), Strategic Management & Business Policy, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc. Zaino, J., (2001), Companies Give Back to Their Communities, Information Week, 12th March, pp. 163.

Things to Know Before You Get an Arthropod for a Pet

Things to Know Before You Get an Arthropod for a Pet Few people think of bugs when they think of pets, but arthropods make surprisingly good companions to those who arent afraid of their creepy, crawly ways. Many arthropods are easy to keep in captivity, inexpensive (or even free) to obtain and care for, and relatively long-lived. Pet arthropods dont require much space, so theyre good choices for apartment dwellers. Do the Right Thing When Obtaining Arthropod Pets There are some important ethical and even legal issues to consider before obtaining and keeping pet arthropods. If you tire of caring for your pet arthropods, you cant simply let them go outdoors, especially if your pets are exotic species. Even arthropods that are native to North America may not be native to your region or state, and shouldnt be introduced to your local ecosystem. Some scientists even argue that the individuals of a species in one area are genetically distinct from those in another area and that activities like butterfly releases may change the genetic makeup of the local population. So before you get a pet arthropod, you need to commit to keeping it captive. To keep some pet arthropods, you may be required to obtain permits from the state or federal government. A silkworm enthusiast who imported gypsy moth caterpillars for his hobby accidentally introduced the dreaded pest to North America. A non-native arthropod introduced to a new environment can wreak havoc on the ecosystem. To prevent such catastrophes from occurring, the government imposes certain restrictions on the importation and transportation of arthropods that could, should they escape, impact agriculture or the environment. Some popular pet arthropods, like giant African millipedes, require you to secure USDA permits before you can import them into the U.S. Arthropods from one region of the country may be prohibited in states where it isnt native. Do the right thing and check with your local, state, and federal government agencies before you obtain an arthropod pet. If youre planning to purchase an arthropod pet (as opposed to collecting it yourself), find a reputable supplier. Unfortunately, the arthropod trade enables unethical suppliers to profit from collecting animals from the wild, without regard for the environment or conservation of the species. Some species are protected by the CITES treaty (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). You should make sure the supplier you use adheres to CITES regulations and any permit requirements imposed by the country of origin and the country of import. Join online groups for arthropod enthusiasts to learn more about which suppliers they prefer. Call the entomology department of your local university for recommendations to obtain arthropod specimens properly. Its your responsibility to educate yourself about where and how arthropods in the commercial marketplace were obtained. Whenever possible, choose captive bred arthropods over those collected from the wild.  Some arthropods are difficult to breed in captivity, so this isnt always possible. However, some of the most popular arthropod pets, like tarantulas and scorpions, are usually bred in captivity. Always verify the source of arthropods in pet stores, of course. Most pet stores in the U.S. sell captive bred tarantulas and scorpions. Things to Consider When Choosing an Arthropod Pet In addition to ethical and legal considerations, you need to decide whether an arthropod is the right kind of pet for you. After all, they are living organisms with specific needs. If you arent willing to provide your arthropod pet with the appropriate care and living conditions for its species, you should indulge your love of bugs by visiting an arthropod zoo. Before you choose an arthropod to keep as a pet, learn everything you can about its biology, natural history, and life cycle. Make sure its a good fit for you. Most arthropods dont do well when handled frequently, and some can become stressed if you keep taking them out of their cage. Some will even defend themselves from the perceived threat. Millipedes exude defensive chemicals when threatened, which may give the handler rashes, blisters, or other allergic skin reactions. Scorpions do sting, and while common pet species like emperor scorpions have weak venom, its no fun to be stung by your pet. Tarantulas, although they appear to be tough, are actually rather fragile and care must be taken not to let them fall to the ground. Theyre known for flinging tiny hairs from their abdomens when threatened, and one tarantula owner suffered eye damage from his pets frantic attempts to defend itself while the owner was cleaning his cage. Make sure you can feed your arthropod pet appropriately. If you arent comfortable with the idea of feeding live baby mice, crickets, or flies to your arthropod pets, dont choose a predator for a pet. There are plenty of vegetarian arthropods that do well in captivity, like millipedes and bess beetles. Be sure you have a reliable and steady source for whatever food you need for your pet. Do you have a local pet store that sells live crickets for feeding? Can you find enough of the host plant for your phytophagous pet? Dry air is the enemy of many arthropods. The low humidity in our climate-controlled homes can cause invertebrates to desiccate and die. Most arthropod pets need plenty of moisture in their cages or tanks to combat the dry air of your home. Can you keep the substrate sufficiently moist for your pet? Some arthropods require a water dish, while others get their water from their food. Either way, youll need to stay on top of keeping the food fresh and the water supply full. As with any pet, you need to know how long its likely to live. Captive tarantulas can live for over 10 years. Giant millipedes can be a 5-year commitment, and even smaller insects like bess beetles can live two years if cared for appropriately. Are you willing to commit to your arthropods care for that long? What happens when you go on vacation? Arthropod pets need pet sitters, too. While some arthropods can survive a few days on their own, if left with sufficient food and water for the duration of your absence, others require constant care. Before you obtain a new arthropod, make sure you have someone willing to care for it when youre away. The pet sitter who cares for your dog or cat may not be comfortable caring for bugs. Fortunately, arthropods are fairly portable, so you can bring your pet to a friend or colleague if needed. Finally, make sure you have a plan in place for arthropods that reproduce in captivity. If youre adopting a few Madagascar hissing cockroaches, you may be surprised to find tiny cockroaches babies crawling around your cage one day. And those tiny cockroaches are remarkably adept at escaping if you havent provided the right kind of cage or tank to keep them corralled. If you keep darkling beetles, you may find your substrate crawling with mealworms. Again, its important to know the arthropods life cycle. If youre planning to keep an arthropod pet that is likely to reproduce, what will you do with the offspring? Do you know someone else interested in keeping arthropods? Do you have additional cages or tanks ready, if needed?

Financial ratio Essays

Financial ratio Essays Financial ratio Essay Financial ratio Essay You have been asked to identify a range of sources of finance available to Fort Sport Ltd. These can include raising funds through a combination of finance areas. Please identify at least three sources. Fort Sport Ltd is a small private company who began trading in April 2013. The company supplies fitness products online to the public and specializing in mid range sporting goods and equipment. In 2014, it wishes to increase Its activity in the market and as such need to identify a variety of options for finance. As a manager of the Fort Ltd I have to consider the available options to enhance our company to be able to reach our goals to expand our activities and increase income generated by new products, and new marketing projects. Have to identify at least 3 possible sources of financing for our company. Here, I need to make a note that there is a company called The Beneath Group and they would be interested to invest into Fort Sports Ltd, however we also need to do research and analysis to explore the costs in such an investment, and also focus on market research regarding internet related businesses that is expected to grow throughout in the I-J and also world wide. If all these above mentioned points could meet and satisfy both sides the decision can be made for an agreement of an investment by The Beneath Group that is based on facts by our research. : As our company the Fort Sport Ltd is a small company it identifies as SAME or Small or Medium Enterprise. Therefore, our finance opportunities are limited to the options for Games. However, there are still many available financing options to small and medium businesses. SAME in definition Just to clarify what is an SAME I point out that a company with less than 500 employees that will be described as SAME. Other definitions for small businesses: Micro enterprises: those with between one and nine employees Small enterprises: those with ten to 99 employees Medium enterprises: those with 100-499 employees There are two type of findings available for business: -Short term finances -Long term finances It depends on how big is the business and so will be decided what finance source will be used, for a small business its different than for a large corporation. Short-term finances typically finance available for less than year: -Bank overdraft -Bank loans (Short term) -Loans from family and friends Trade credits -Leasing of assets (short or medium term) Eng-term finances typically finance available for more than a year: -Bank borrowings for long term -Secured bank loan on the property or shared capitals -Mortgages on the property -Grants and loans from other organizations or government -Venture capital Finance sources available for Fort Sport Ltd according to my research as lining manager: Option Number 1. The Blue Chip Investments There is an option to get investment from larger companies, especially with the time of new advanced technologies. The hope for a larger profit income is ore certain due to some real success-stories from the last few years, thanks to the constantly growing possibilities over the Internet. Although, the bulk of their investment portfolio is in large steady companies known as blue chips, they often invest in Seems in order to provide a more balanced range of investments, which have potential for higher growth. But this option only recommend to the executives if we have a larger future plan for example a new online sale project that expands to abroad globally. It is require serious planning and a reliable strategy with calculated financial growth. Option Number 2. Small Loans, Bank Loans, Private Loans, Family Loans Based on the numbers seen below consider our company rather small and therefore I would also keep more simple financing options that might be available for Fort Sport Ltd such as Bank Loans and Private or Family Loans. To take too big steps at the time is risky so I would rather recommend one small step at the time and step by step slowly but surely reach our goals. It is probably more suitable for the owners too, as it is a family owned business and to get a large corporation Or Founding Agency involved into the business s a risk that they might as well send a CEO to supervise their investment and the direction of the Fort Sport Ltd. s business strategy would also be at risk to change in the favor of the new investors, and it might not make happy the original owners, the family. Assets Fixed Assets 10000 Accumulated Depreciation 1000 Total Fixed Assets 9000 Current Assets Stock 2500 Debtors 1500 Bank 12500 Total Current Assets 16500 Total Assets Liabilities 25,500 Creditors 3000 Loan 2000 Credit card 750 Total Liabilities 5750 Total Assets Liabilities Equity 19750 Capital Retained Profit 16250 Total Equity 1 8250 Option Number 3. MOB as a Management Buy Out believe Fort Sport Ltd is still small company to get into the stock exchange market, and I will look further options to get the necessary financing from other sources. I would not risk a Bobs in other words a Boy Outs from a larger organization as keep that option for the time only when the Fort Sport Ltd as a company fails to produce income growth and would get into a financial crisis. However, an MOB (Management Buy Out is still a considerable opportunity to get financed and also get our Management more involved into the business and the future of the Fort Sport Ltd. As it is a well known fact that if employees of a firm or company are shareholders then they share a mutual interest with the owners to make the company successful. I believe this is a good way of financing Of the Fort Sport Ltd. Over the years it produced a significant growth and reached to a stage where more funding sources must be considered to be able to continue to be successful on the market. To clarify what does an MOB means: Management Buy Outs (Mobs) has led to the search for better ways of financing Games. This is where the management of the business is given the opportunity to buy ownership and matron of a firm, in the hope they can improve the productivity of the business. Option Number 4. Investment from another company It is to accept the offer for investment from the Beneath Group, which is a company that showed interest to invest into the Fort Sport Ltd. I am as a Manager of the Fort Sport Ltd would be interested about such an arrangements but it needs to be analyses first what is the cost of this kind of agreement for us and also investigate what do we benefit from such a contract and what is against it. Important to see the positive and negative effects of this arrangement for the future of our company the Fort Sport Ltd. Ownership percentages, etc. Option Number 5. Combined financial sources Me personally think this would be the best solution for financing the F-rotor Sport Ltd for the future as we are still not big enough as business to get financed according to a large companies opportunities, such as Stock Market, etc. We still need to be more realistic as our current fixed assets are not enough to secure us a long-term loan from a Bank for example, so we need to look for Private Investors, maybe groups such as The Beneath Group and also for loans fixed by family and friends, employees and maybe to combine these two elements would bring us the best results. To accept a smaller % investment from the Beneath Group in return they will get a smaller part in % of the ownership in the Fort Sport Ltd and as well as the loans from family members, private investors, employees, managers would be offered a chance for become an owner in part of the business of the Fort Sport Ltd. These type of financing nowadays are getting more popular as the company do not rely on a Bank entirely or another Finance Management Group instead deals with TTS own financing behind closed doors with the employees, managers and family members whos becoming a shareholder of the company. Conclusion And if the help available from an outside entity such as Besom Gregory who manages SAME to get the best finances available for them and ensure the best growth then would definitely get into such a partnership too, to find our best finance solutions! 1. 2 What are the legal, financial and dilution of control implications (percentage ownerships) and a risk of bankruptcy? 1 . In the area of Financing -? Funds are procured from long-term sources as well as short-term sources. Long-term funds may be made available by owners, shareholders, lenders through issue of debentures / bonds, from financial institutions, banks and public at large. Short-term funds may be procured from commercial banks, suppliers of goods, public deposits etc. The finance manager has to decide on optimum capital structure with a view to maximize shareholders wealth. Financial leverage or trading on equity is an important method by which return to shareholders can be increased. . For evaluating capital expenditure (investment) decisions, a finance manager uses various methods such as average rate of return, payback, maternal rate of return, net present value and profitability index. 3. In the area of working capital management there are various methods for efficient utilization of current resources at the disposal of the firm, thus increasing profitability. The centralized method of cash management is considered a better method of managing liquid resources of the firm. 4. In the area of dividend decision, a firm is faced with the problem of declaring dividend or postponing dividend declaration, a problem of internal financing. There are tools to tackle such situation. 5. For the evaluation of a firms performance there are different methods. For example, ratio analysis is a popular technique to evaluate different aspects of a firm. 6. The main concern of the finance manager is to provide adequate funds from the best possible source, at the right time and the minimum cost and to ensure that the funds so acquired are put to best possible use through various methods / techniques are used to determine that funds have been procured from the best possible available services and the funds have been used in the best possible way: Funds flow and cash flow statements and projected financial statements help a lot in this regard. The legal implications are to calculate % of ownership after each investments correctly and officially get investors as shareholders of the company. Partnership with Beneath Group -? with legally correct contract to make it clear what will be the role of the Beneath Group as only investors or they want to become involved in the business of Fort Sport Ltd as active participants of the work -Calculate cost for such actions -Make business strategy planning for the future to set our goals where do we wan t to be from this point a year later Risk of Bankruptcy and profit minimization objective gives rise to a number f problems as below: 1. Profit minimization concept should be considered in relation to risks involved. There is a direct relationship between risk and profit. Many risky propositions yield high profit. Higher the risk, higher is the possibility of profits. If profit minimization is the only goal, then risk factor is altogether ignored. 2. Profit minimization, as an objective does not take into account time pattern of return. Proposal A may give a higher amount of profits compared to proposal B, yet if the returns begin to flow say 10 years later, proposal B may be preferred which may have lower overall profits but the returns flow is ore early and quick. 3. Profit minimization, as an objective is too narrow. It fails to take into account the social considerations as also the obligations to various interests of workers, consumers, society as well as ethical trade practices. Further, most business leaders believe that adoption of ethical standards strengthen their competitive positions. 4. Profits do not necessarily result in cash flows available to the stockholder. Owners receive cash flow in the form of either cash dividends paid to them or proceeds from selling their shares for a higher price than paid initially. Modern Approach The alternative to profit minimization is wealth minimization. This is also known as Value minimization or Net Present Worth (NP) minimization. Value is represented by the market price of the companys equity shares. Prices in the share market at a given point of time, are the result of many factors like general economic outlook, particular outlook if the companies under consideration, technical factors and even mass psychology. However taken on a long-term basis, the share market prices of a companys shares do reflect the value, which the various parties put on a company. Normally, the value is a function of two factors: The likely rate of earnings per share of a company (PEPS) and The capitalization rate PEPS are calculated by dividing the periods total earnings available for the firms common shares by the number of shares of common shares outstanding. The likely rate of Earnings Per Share (PEPS) depends on the assessment as to how profitably a company is going to operate in the future. The capitalization rate reflects the liking of the investors for a company. If the company earns a higher rate of earning per share through risky operations or sky financing pattern, the investors will not look upon its shares with favor. To that extent, the market value of the shares of such a company will be low. If a company invests its fund in risky ventures, the investors will put in their money if they get higher return as compared to that from a low risk share. The market value of a firm is a function of the earning per share and the capitalization rate. The important issues relating to maximizing share prices are Economic Value Added (EVA) and the focus on stakeholders. Economic Value Added (EVA) is a popular measure used by many firms to determine whether an investment proposed or existing contribute positively to the owners wealth. EVA is calculated by subtracting, the cost of funds used to finance or investment from its after-tax-operations profits. Stakeholders are group such as employees, customers, suppliers, creditors, owners and others who have a direct economic link to the firm. A firm with a stakeholder focus consciously avoids actions that would prove detrimental to stakeholders. The goal is not to maximize stakeholder well being but to preserve it. It is expected to provide long run benefit to shareholders by maintaining positive stakeholder relationships. Such relationship should minimize stakeholder turnover, conflicts and litigation. Clearly, the firm can better achieve its goal of shareholder wealth minimization by maintaining cooperation with other stakeholders rather than having conflict with them. 1. 3 After assessing the possible sources of finance, you must choose a source(s)that would be appropriate for Fort Sport Ltd. You are required to: Evaluate benefits of different sources for Fort Sport Ltd Match term of finance to term of project As above mentioned prefer Option Number 5 (from my answer for question number 1 . ) where we do not give too much power to an outside entity such as an outside investor group as the Beneath Group but still get them involved in a smaller scale and in the same time offer a Percentage of Ownership package for our own managers, employees, families and friendly private investors. In this way the original ownership would not get out of power as they could keep still their ownership even over 50% and the rest could be offered combined to The Beneath Group and employees, etc. The Beneath Group would become as a partner and the risk of bankruptcy would get to the minimum if we get financially involved our employees as well. As earlier stated already if an employee is financially active within the company then it becomes his/her own business interest as well to make our company successful and presumably this will result in strong will among the owners and employees to make the company successful.

Definition and Examples of Voice in Phonetics

Definition and Examples of Voice in Phonetics In phonetics  and phonology, voice refers to the speech sounds produced by the vocal folds (also known as the vocal cords). Also known as voicing. Voice quality refers to the characteristic features of an individuals voice.Voice range (or vocal range) refers to the range of frequency or pitch used by a speaker. Etymology From the Latin call. Examples and Observations John Laver[O]ur social interaction through speech depends on much more than solely the linguistic nature of the spoken messages exchanged. The voice is the very emblem of the speaker, indelibly woven into the fabric of speech. In this sense, each of our utterances of spoken language carries not only its own message, but through accent, tone of voice and habitual voice quality it is at the same time an audible declaration of our membership [in] particular social and regional groups, of our individual physical and psychological identity, and of our momentary mood. The Speech Mechanism Beverly CollinsThe overwhelming majority of sounds found in human speech are produced by an egressive pulmonic airstream, i.e. an outgoing stream of air produced by the lungs contracting (partially collapsing inwards) and thus pushing the air contained within them outwards. This airstream then passes through the larynx (known familiarly as the Adams apple) and along a tube of the complex shape formed by the mouth and nose (termed the vocal tract). A variety of muscles interact to produce changes in the configuration of the vocal tract so as to allow parts of the speech organs to come into contact (or near contact) with other parts, i.e. to articulate. Phoneticians term these anatomical bits and pieces the articulatorshence the term for the branch of science known as articulatory phonetics...The vocal folds (also called the vocal cords) vibrate very rapidly when an airstream is allowed to pass between them, producing what is termed voicethat is, a sort of buzz which one can hear and f eel in vowels and in some consonant sounds. Voicing Peter RoachIf the vocal folds vibrate we will hear the sound that we call voicing or phonation. There are many different sorts of voicing that we can producethink of the differences in the quality of your voice between singing, shouting, and speaking quietly, or think of the different voices you might use reading a story to young children in which you have to read out what is said by characters such as giants, fairies, mice or ducks; many of the differences are made with the larynx. We can make changes in the vocal folds themselvesthey can, for example, be made longer or shorter, more tense or more relaxed or be more or less strongly pressed together. The pressure of the air below the vocal folds (the subglottal pressure) can also be varied [in intensity, frequency, and quality]. The Difference Between Voiced and Voiceless Sounds Thomas P. KlammerTo feel the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds for yourself, place your fingers on your Adams apple and produce first the sound of /f/. Sustain that sound for a few seconds. Now quickly switch to the sound of /v/. You should be able to feel very clearly the vibration that accompanies the sound of /v/, which is voiced, in contrast to the absence of such vibration with /f/, which is voiceless. Voicing is the result of moving air causing the vocal folds (or vocal cords) to vibrate within the larynx behind the cartilage of the Adams apple. This vibration, your voice, is what you feel and hear when you sustain the sound of /v/. Resources Collins, Beverley, and Inger M. Mees.  Practical Phonetics and Phonology: a Resource Book for Students. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2013.Klammer, Thomas P., et al.  Analyzing English Grammar. Pearson, 2007.Laver, John.  Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge University Press, 1994.Roach, Peter.  English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. 4th ed., Cambridge University Press, 2009.

The Anterior Tibial Artery Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Anterior Tibial Artery - Case Study Example It appears that the acute swelling that has resulted may be due to rupture of an artery; most likely the Anterior Tibial Artery. If my friend is not taken to a hospital immediately, there is a possibility of developing a hypotensive shock due to extravasation of blood with the passage of time. Therefore emergency help should be immediately sought. Involvement of an artery should definitely be included in the differential diagnosis of this case. The artery that is most likely to get affected is the anterior tibial artery. Its patency can be evaluated by palpating the pulse of dorsal pedis artery, which is one of the peripheral branches of the anterior tibial artery (Casserly et al.   253). A similar symptom profile consisting of altered sensation in between the first and second toe, pulseless dorsal pedis, swelling, and pain are evident in the condition known as anterior compartment syndrome, which should, therefore, be included in the differential diagnosis of this case (Slobounov 332).â€Æ'

Research Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4

Research Proposal - Essay Example As the free trade agreement was signed by the United States and Cambodia within WTO (World Trade Organization), the country became the â€Å"favorite† supplier of brand clothes for American shopping malls. However, the situation is rather grave as Cambodian workers (with mainly women from rural areas being among them) face inadequate and extremely poor working conditions as well as low wages. Most workers have to live on only 3 dollars a day, working hard in unfavorable factory conditions (Tolson, 2014). It is also remarkable that almost a half of a day wage has to be spent for meal. Thus, seeking to save money, Cambodian workers often share meals, that eventually leads to malnutrition and fainting (Tolson, 2014). Fainting has affected about 4000 factory workers in the recent years, with cases of mass fainting in the workplace. This concerning fact couldn’t go unattended as faintings were caused by hunger, heat, poor ventilation, long working days and inhalation of chem ical substances for fabric processing. Considering the abundant evidences, one can easily conclude that labor rights are blatantly violated in Cambodia, violations were so numerous that last months of 2013 and first part of 2014 brought workers’ strikes and protests in Cambodia’s capital Phnom Penh with demands to increase wage. Garment industry workers are paid beyond the subsistent minimum wage. The situation went far enough for the government to deploy police for suppression of protests leaving several people dead and numerous of them wounded. Moreover, this summer, several lethal cases were reported with women fainting in the workplace and then dying. Labor unions try to promote their demands of minimum wage increase so that workers can afford adequate existence. Community Legal Education Center (CLEC), an organization advocating for human and labor rights, tries to convince main brands having their capacities in Cambodia to implement the program of free meals for workers

Cross-Cultural Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cross-Cultural Psychology - Essay Example With respect to evolutionary behaviour, this form of giving up one’s life has slowly evolved over the ages in India. In the ancient times, the phenomenon was prevalent among kings and queens as the queens would usually give up their lives when their husbands died in wars, rather than remain widows for the rest of their lives. Since then, the practice has evolved a great extent and has taken shape in an adverse manner, causing degradation to the entire Indian society. If one thinks of the custom as something that would have evolved over the ages and helped the situation get better, Sati is not the best explanation for growth and development within society at all. It is in fact something that has been hindering the same, and has not let women gain absolute freedom. Sociological factors have also helped to lead to this very custom of Sati. It is a custom that has evolved from the very thoughts of people living in olden day India; the country witnessed ideals arising from a very p atriarchal form of society where the men folk had the power to decide what was to happen and how it was to be carried out.

Theory of Constraints and the Public and Non-profit Organizations Essay

Theory of Constraints and the Public and Non-profit Organizations - Essay Example The theory of constraints is based on the practical implications of 'how to think' and deals with thinking processes and their applications. The theory of Constraints was originally developed by Eliyahu M. Goldratt who introduced the concept in his book, The Goal. The concept suggests that the world around us could be changed with a better understanding of the cause effect relationships between certain processes. The theory of constraints thinking processes or TPs are problem solving tools that show ongoing improvements raising questions on what to change and how to cause the change within any organisation (Goldratt 1984, Friedman, 2005). Some of the essential management skills that are essential to any system and recognized by TOC thinking processes would be communication, team building and empowerment. The theory of constraints thinking processes could be applied to production units, to distribution, marketing, sales, project management and laying out the direction of a company. In the Goal, Goldratt suggests that within any complex organisational system, there will be weaknesses and as within a chain the weakest link must be identified and corrected, so also within any organisation, the weaknesses will have to be identified as weaknesses coul... thin any organisation, the weaknesses will have to be identified as weaknesses could limit the ability of any system or company from achieving its goal. The TOC thinking processes or TPS provides an integrated problem solving methodology that help in construction of solutions, communications, collaboration and successful implementation of all solutions to problems identified within any organisation (Goldratt, 1984). The TOC Thinking Processes provides solutions to production, project management, distribution, supplier relations, sales and marketing and also provides generic solutions to specific organisational environments. The Theory of Constraints or TOC is based on the fact that there is at least one limiting factor that constraints the revenue generating process of a company (Friedman 2005). By increasing production rate of a company and initial implementation obstacles, TOC approaches could be used to identify constraints or bottlenecks, exploit these constraints to increase eff iciency of the company, elevate and downplay these constraints and repeat all the measures taken to overcome bottleneck. Some of the essential features of the theory of constraints include gaining agreement that a problem or limitation exists for a company, a direction is sought out to provide a solution to the problem, and negative ramifications and obstacles to implementation are overcome. Goldratt's theory of constraints not only helps identify constraints and helps improving organisational success, but also facilitates improvement for organisations and teams using solutions from the Theory of Constraints (Friedman, 2005). The Theory of Constraints is based on cause and effect logic as the cause of any production problems in a company is identified and sorted out and all local

Duke Children's Hospital Balanced Scorecard Essay

Duke Children's Hospital Balanced Scorecard - Essay Example A Balanced scorecard therefore aids in achieving the firm’s strategic priorities and goals. In developing a balance scorecard, Duke Children’s Hospital had an established strategy: â€Å"perk up communications to perk up quality of health care while reducing expenses.† The organization sought to use the balanced scorecard in evaluating its business processes and stakeholder relationship due to its meditated impacts on business organizations. Duke Children’s Hospital employed the strategy of evaluating and examining its past records such as patient satisfaction survey data, in establishing the balanced scorecard. As a result of its anticipated positive results, the staff generally took it positively and was patient to reap the fruits. Analysis In the Duke Children’s Hospital, the developed BSC methodology started with the development of the strategic plan and a mission. The senior management were involved in setting the strategic goals and provided c redible support for the project. The key metrics for measuring performance were then developed and established. The process was concluded by developing initiatives that were pointed towards enhancing performance and to support the realization of the set strategic goals. The Balance Scorecard was set to act as an important platform to spearhead the incorporation of the principal methodologies, initiatives, and the established procedures across critical perspectives. Even though financial performance is a critical issue in any organization, the major focus of Duke Children’s Hospital over the balance scorecard was on clinical quality and patient safety. This interest is well executed in the organization’s mission and vision. In order to thrive as planned, Duke Children’s Hospital was compelled to make a number of changes with regard to the balance scorecard. First, the initial principal concern for the organization just like any other (financial interest) was inte rchanged as key concern and instead they focused more on the patient safety and clinical quality. This was altered from the normal arrangement perspective whereby the â€Å"Financial† interest was initially first, and was instead moved to position three while â€Å"Quality and Patient Safety† took the top position. Further, its significance and value was well indicated and stressed. Another change that was observed in the business process is that of linking goals with performance metrics. After the strategic plan was defined, the organization took the responsibility to determine specific goals which were then linked to each strategic perspective. Duke Children’s Hospital also sought to limit the goal to a smaller number for the purpose of maintaining focus on initiatives meant to drive the strategic plan. Specific metrics which were meant to be measured and collected after every four months were then defined and linked to the goals. In doing this, a number of me asures were employed to determine a manageable process. For instance, the metrics were derived from a variety of kept records of the organization. This involved retrieving the initial patient safety database derived from internal safety reporting systems, initial financial and hospital operational database, and the past patient satisfaction survey data, among others. Conclusion The establishment of the balance score

Understanding and assisting Megan Griffiths Case Study

Understanding and assisting Megan Griffiths - Case Study Example Megan Griffiths is a 27 year old single parent who has 4 children. She has had four different boyfriends since she was aged 13 and has been living on her own since she was 16 years old. Megan’s first daughter, Jane was in foster care from birth until the time her mom reached the age of 16. Understanding the situation Megan is in may be easier with some knowledge of the developmental stages that occur during adolescence. It seems that, because her first pregnancies occurred during her teen-age years, one must first have a solid understanding of the state she was in at that time. Along with looking at the actual information provided by Megan herself, the literature can provide a good framework for case planning. Pierno (1995, p-1) has provided some excellent information in her work on adolescent pregnancy. She points out that Freud’s concept of adolescence as a time â€Å"fraught with struggle†¦a time when the ego is torn between the strong impulses of the id and the restrictions of the super ego. This conflict makes adolescence a time of tremendous stress and turmoil. She goes on to contrast Freud’s theories of psychosexual development to Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory which takes a broader view of the factors impacting human development. Erikson proposes that all people face a series of developmental tasks but he does not see individuals getting ‘stuck’ in a phase, as Freud believed. Erikson’s theory is that people will rework old issues in the context of certain tasks and then move on. In Megan's situation, having had a total of four children she seems to have initiated the process of 'moving on' by accessing help for a depression that was diagnosed when she was fifteen years old. There appears to have been significant progress in this area in that she accessed training as a nursery nurse and is working part time in a children's play group and nursery. However further research and reflection have led this writer to conclude that Piaget's theory is the most appropriate model for understanding Megan's situation. Piaget's theories about cognitive development (3) through adolescence involve ".movement from concrete to abstract thinking and a decrease in egocentric thought." Pierno (1995, pp. 2-3) points out that "The acquisition of formal reasoning skills allows older adolescents (about age 15) to think about many possible outcomes that do not exist now.An adolescent with formal reasoning skills (with appropriate guidance) could try to think through the full implications of parenting a newborn." Risk taking, part of the normal behavioral development as seen to occur during adolescence may have been the basis for Megan becoming sexually active in her early teens. This is a time when young people typically work at finding ways to "shape their identities, try out new decision making skills, develop realistic assessments of themselves and gain peer acceptance and respect (Ponton, l997; Jesser (1991)" (1995 p-3) Pierno points out that "unfortunately, some of the risks that adolescents pursue may pose a real threat to their health and well being. These include motor vehicle accidents, pregnancy, alcohol and drug abuse and cigarette smoking." CURRENT CASE PLANNING Understanding Megan's early behavior would be helpful in working with her current

Duke Children's Hospital Balanced Scorecard Essay

Duke Children's Hospital Balanced Scorecard - Essay Example A Balanced scorecard therefore aids in achieving the firm’s strategic priorities and goals. In developing a balance scorecard, Duke Children’s Hospital had an established strategy: â€Å"perk up communications to perk up quality of health care while reducing expenses.† The organization sought to use the balanced scorecard in evaluating its business processes and stakeholder relationship due to its meditated impacts on business organizations. Duke Children’s Hospital employed the strategy of evaluating and examining its past records such as patient satisfaction survey data, in establishing the balanced scorecard. As a result of its anticipated positive results, the staff generally took it positively and was patient to reap the fruits. Analysis In the Duke Children’s Hospital, the developed BSC methodology started with the development of the strategic plan and a mission. The senior management were involved in setting the strategic goals and provided c redible support for the project. The key metrics for measuring performance were then developed and established. The process was concluded by developing initiatives that were pointed towards enhancing performance and to support the realization of the set strategic goals. The Balance Scorecard was set to act as an important platform to spearhead the incorporation of the principal methodologies, initiatives, and the established procedures across critical perspectives. Even though financial performance is a critical issue in any organization, the major focus of Duke Children’s Hospital over the balance scorecard was on clinical quality and patient safety. This interest is well executed in the organization’s mission and vision. In order to thrive as planned, Duke Children’s Hospital was compelled to make a number of changes with regard to the balance scorecard. First, the initial principal concern for the organization just like any other (financial interest) was inte rchanged as key concern and instead they focused more on the patient safety and clinical quality. This was altered from the normal arrangement perspective whereby the â€Å"Financial† interest was initially first, and was instead moved to position three while â€Å"Quality and Patient Safety† took the top position. Further, its significance and value was well indicated and stressed. Another change that was observed in the business process is that of linking goals with performance metrics. After the strategic plan was defined, the organization took the responsibility to determine specific goals which were then linked to each strategic perspective. Duke Children’s Hospital also sought to limit the goal to a smaller number for the purpose of maintaining focus on initiatives meant to drive the strategic plan. Specific metrics which were meant to be measured and collected after every four months were then defined and linked to the goals. In doing this, a number of me asures were employed to determine a manageable process. For instance, the metrics were derived from a variety of kept records of the organization. This involved retrieving the initial patient safety database derived from internal safety reporting systems, initial financial and hospital operational database, and the past patient satisfaction survey data, among others. Conclusion The establishment of the balance score

The Iliad or the Poem of Force Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Iliad or the Poem of Force - Essay Example It is not a story of people but how force is being used to subjugate other people and cow them. Many people were mistaken on this aspect of the story and therefore failed to focus on a real moral lesson which is how force is the big determinant among people's relationships. It has a power to influence people and shape the course of events in history as well. Her insights into Iliad had forced people to think again of the real story in terms of a force that de-humanizes people, both of the protagonists in any conflict. The psychological and the emotional effects of the use of force scars the people who use force to intimidate the other people as well as the recipients or victims of the force being applied. It can intoxicate or numb the people who have the power to use force because it blinds them to its ill effects. War can never be justified, even those so-called pre-emptive wars designed to prevent further wars by striking at the enemy first and therefore spare the populace of a wid er conflagration. It can be seen in the after-effects of so many wars in which soldiers return home like zombies. They stop caring and thinking; soon, they engage in self-hatred (Bell, 1998, p. 186). From her point of view, there are no winners in a war no matter how this is justified. She had expressed this perspective in her numerous writings stating the futility and brutality of wars (Bell, 1993, p. 149).

Literary History and the Concept of Literature Essay Example for Free

Literary History and the Concept of Literature Essay Literary history and the concept of literature I From the 1970s onwards, much has been said about the writing of history and literary history that has cast doubt on its intellectual credibility. For example, Hayden White’s Metahistory (1973) included an influential analysis of the metaphorical foundations of 19th century history writing. In 1979, Jean-Francois Lyotard criticized grand narratives in La Condition postmoderne (The Postmodern Condition), and in 1992 David Perkins presented a whole array of sceptical epistemological and methodological arguments directed against literary history in Is Literary History Possible?. The questioning of literary history has not however resulted in the abandonment of large-scale literary-historical projects, rather it has inspired attempts to base such ventures on better designs and better foundations. Not least, many new ideas about the field have been put forward in connection with the preparation of two major works of literary history sponsored by the ICLA. It is also natural to point to two theoretical publications from 2002: the collection of essays, Rethinking Literary History, edited by Linda Hutcheon and Mario J. Valdes, and Marcel Cornis-Pope and John Neubauer’s brief presentation of the ideas behind a history of literary cultures in East-Central Europe. [ii] The Swedish project â€Å"Literature and Literary History in Global Contexts†, which was started in 1998 and will terminate in 2004, focuses specifically on some theoretical problems associated with the writing of literary history. We who participate come, mostly, from various fields within oriental studies or from comparative literature. Since the project is sponsored by the Swedish Research Council we all work, or once worked, at various Swedish universities. One of the special features of the project is the interest devoted to world histories of literature, a genre where the general problems of literary history become especially visible and acute. (I shall return to this perhaps unfamiliar genre in a moment. ) Three important cruces in connection with world histories of literature have been singled out for special discussion within the project: (i) the understanding of the notion of literature, (ii) the understanding of genres, and (iii) the understanding of interactions between literary cultures. These three sets of issues will be made the subject of four volumes of literary-historical studies and theoretical reflections, and these volumes will represent the main concrete outcome of the project. In this paper, I shall concentrate on the first of the questions, about the notion of literature. I shall say a few words about the concept of literature itself, point out some of the difficulties that it occasions in a world history of literature, and conclude with a brief discussion of how such problems may be approached and dealt with. II In a sense, of course, there are very many concepts of literature: if every nuance is taken into account, it may well be the case that each person has their own. Yet if, conversely, one looks at the situation very broadly, one can say that there is an everyday concept of literature in Western culture which is widely shared. That concept came into being in the course of the 18th century. Before that, no exact counterpart to our present concept of literature existed either in Western culture or elsewhere, and the distinction between imaginative literature and non-fiction was not of primary importance in the classification of texts. Wilt Idema and Lloyd Haft have given a concise and clarifying account of how earlier cultures thought about texts and their basic divisions. As long as no more than a few written works are in circulation in a given society, all texts are more or less equally important and valuable. If there is a dramatic increase in the number of writings, with a corresponding differentiation in their content and character, the texts are likely to be subdivided into the categories of â€Å"high† literature, professional literature, and popular literature. â€Å"Literature† (or high literature) is then the term for texts which are felt to be of general educational value and which are, accordingly, regarded as part of the necessary intellectual baggage of every cultured person†¦. Works which contain useful knowledge but remain limited to one specific area, such as medicine or military science, are classified as professional literature. Works intended only to amuse, and which have (or are considered to have) no educational value, fall outside the scope of â€Å"literature†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. We may call these more or less despised writings â€Å"trivial literature†. In the kind of intellectual culture described in this quotation, the fundamental distinction among texts is the one between culturally important texts and culturally less significant ones. In most such cultures – classical antiquity, classical Chinese culture, classical Sanskrit culture, and so forth – the class of culturally important texts would comprise most of what we call poetry, history writing, and philosophy, and normally also other kinds of texts – some administrative texts, some texts concerning magic, some letters, et cetera. Oral vernacular texts, or relatively unadorned fictional narratives, what we call fictional prose, would normally form part of popular or trivial literature. For complex social, economic, and cultural reasons, this way of classifying texts came to undergo great though gradual transformations in Western Europe from the late 17th to the early 19th centuries. One of the very many crucial factors behind the process must have been the growing importance of a new, more rigorous conception of empirical truth, associated with the natural sciences. High literature, in the special sense described by Idema and Haft, had always aspired to truth in the sense of great human significance. As the distinction between empirical truth and empirical non-truth became more rigid and more significant – and as many other, more or less related developments were taking place – new groupings began to emerge in the textual universe. Poetry became dissociated from scientific writings, and successively also from history, philosophy, oratory, and letters. On the other hand, fictional prose, especially in the guise of the increasingly appreciated novel, came to be regarded as one of the genres of poetry. With this, our modern notion of literature had effectively taken shape, and the term â€Å"literature† (whose main meaning in the 17th and 18th centuries had been something like â€Å"education† or â€Å"culture†) successively developed into today’s normal designation of the concept. [v] III The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the beginning of the writing of literary history – of the history of national European literatures, of the history of European literature as a whole and, at least from the 1830s onwards, of the world history of literature. World histories of literature thus comprise a genre which has existed for around 170 years. Among its modern instances are such impressive works as the German twenty-five volume Neues Handbuch der Literaturwissenschaft (New Handbook of Literary Studies), published between 1972 and 2002, and the Russian Istorija vsemirnoj literatury v devjati tomach (History of World Literature in Nine Volumes) from 1983-94. [vii] However in the English-speaking world the genre is more or less extinct, and its very existence appears to be overlooked in the contemporary international discussion about the globalization of literary studies. These debates are primarily inspired by the widespread interest in colonial and postcolonial studies and place the last few centuries at the centre of attention, while the traditional world histories of literature are, in principle, universal in scope, and are meant to cover all times and cultures. In many respects, it seems a good idea to have a world history of literature to fall back on. Such works can relate the various literary cultures of the world to one another and put them into perspective. Thus they may create a much needed overview, much as a map of the world helps us to comprehend certain fundamental geographical realities. To some extent, works like the Neues Handbuch der Literaturwissenschaft and the Istorija vsemirnoj literatury do just that, and of course they also contain a wealth of information and intelligent discussion. Yet, despite their often remarkable qualities, world histories of literature are typically profoundly problematic for a number of reasons. Two major problems have their roots in the very concept of literature. First, the concept is, in itself, an everyday notion. If employed without additional explications or stipulations, it is too imprecise and inconsistent to form the basis of a reasonable classification. Second, the concept of literature is a relatively recent Western invention. Its application to other times and cultures will easily lead to anachronistic and ethnocentric distortions. On the whole, world histories of literature are content to sweep such problems under the carpet. They typically prefer to rely on the everyday notion of literature and to include the resulting contradictions in the bargain. For instance, the concept of literature is traditionally used in such a manner that the criteria for a work to be classified as literature vary depending on the time and the culture one is speaking of. Modern literature is most often seen as consisting of just fictional prose, poetry, and drama. When there is talk of older periods, the concept of literature is however used very inclusively. [ix] For example, ancient Roman philosophy, history, and oratory are not excluded as being non-fiction; instead, such writers as Lucrece, Caesar, and Cicero are considered part of the European literary heritage. The same duality appears in the treatment of other literary cultures. Thus, for instance, the sacred Vedic texts (circa 1200 – circa 500 B. C.).